Problems In Policy Implementation Policy And Education Education Essay

Problems In Policy Implementation Policy And Education Education Essay In a growing economy like UAE, there is a vital need for numerous numbers of policies to regulate this growth and cope with it. The direct effect of this growth is increase in the number of expatriates compared to nationals; those expatriates are from diverse cultural backgrounds that have their impact on the educational system in UAE and the increase in demand for new educational policies to deal the problem of cultural diversities in schools. Education policy refers to the collection of laws, rules, and regulations that run the operation of education systems. Education occurs in many forms for many purposes through many institutions (early childhood education, kindergarten through to 12th grade, two and four year colleges or universities, graduate and professional education, adult education and job training). Education policy can directly affect the education people engage in at all ages, it includes school size, class size, school choice, school privatization, tracking, teacher ed ucation and certification, teacher pay, teaching methods, curricular content, diversity in class, graduation requirements, school infrastructure investment, values that schools are expected to uphold and model, globalization challenges . The goals of new educational policies are to provide all children with an equal educational opportunity under the increasing pressure of diversities within classrooms. The ideal policy in general must include the responsibility are required changes in our methods of thinking and approaching education in such a way that all people are respected. More intercultural understanding and an awareness of social and global knowledge will need to be actively incorporated into our educational curriculums. Not only is knowledge of other cultures required but also creative and critical thinking will be developed to create new policies involving equalities in multicultural education (Bennett, 2010). In UAE, we cant say that there is one single policy to deal with the problem of increasing in diversities at schools in UAE, and each school has its own policy to deal with this problem. The need for policy Tharp (1994) states that The increasing diversity of cultural and ethnic groups in schools has led to a parallel increase in concern for the implications of this demographic shift for education .Most of the schools in UAE are focusing on culture in their policies; they are discussing how to create suitable educational culture in the classrooms and friendly atmosphere outside the classrooms to increase levels of interactions between the students. Cultural diversity is considered a major concern for many schools and it differs from school to another based on the types of students they have, and from what cultural backgrounds they come. Cultural diversity and Multicultural education is an idea, an approach to school reform, and a movement for equity between students, social justice, and diverse cultural recognition that is needed in order to adapt with the globalization movement. Specialists within diverse cultural education emphasize different components and cultural groups. However, a significant degree of consensus exists within the field regarding its major principles, concepts, and goals. A major goal of multicultural education is to restructure schools so that all students acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function in an ethnically and racially diverse nation and world (Multicultural Education, 2010). Good and idealistic policy will increase the focus on cultural diversity will help schools in maintaining educational equity for members of diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic groups, and to facilitate their participation as critical and reflective citizens in an inclusive national civic culture, but is there an existence of such policies at schools in UAE? The awareness of cultural diversity concept in education tries to provide students with educational experiences that enable them to maintain commitments to their community cultures as well as acquire the knowledge, skills, and cultural capital needed to function in the na tional civic culture and community. Policies at private schools in Dubai There are many policies related to cultural diversities at private schools in Dubai, but the focus will be on the policy at DIS that is dealing with the issue of cultural diversity in and outside the classrooms. Social development culminates in its expansion to a global magnitude, where students place themselves and their culture in an international perspective, understands and accepts cultural specifics and differences, and assume the individual and national responsibilities towards international cooperation (DIS, 2010). This quotation is an example of how private schools in Dubai are referring to cultural awareness in their policies, but questions on the factors interfering in policy formation, like rules and believes of the surrounding environment, implementation and the relevant instruments rise immediately into discussion. This quotation is the policy of how to deal with cultural diversity at DIS, but it is considered short to express everything related to its values, too genera l, it lacks of implementation techniques, and it is considered implicit. Who put the policy and who will implement it, are considered major issue for the success of the policy; I will represent a sample of Institutional perspective on educational policy and practice ( figure 1, Scott and Meyer 1994), and what are the major parties involved is any policy from settings, implementation, monitoring and responsible for giving feedback. Institutional theory offers a more nuanced lens for examining the organizational and institutional conditions that mediate these reforms, and how they do or do not make their ways into classrooms. Namely, as represented in Figure 1, institutional theory draws attention to the broader cultural forces that help define the major parties involved in every policy (Patricia Burch, 2007). The major concern here is that the schools which refer to cultural diversity and awareness in their policies are not aware of it, and if they are aware; there is no clear method s of implementations and evaluating. Each policy is affected by the surroundings (stakeholders), that may interfere directly or indirectly in setting the policy, schools in Dubai are facing a problem of cultural diversity, but what are the solutions of going over this problem. Mentioning it in the policy is a part and solving is another part (words vs. action), and it is allowed for single school to take it own action in solving the problem without governmental interference. The policy is set by people in charge who may interact by either involving others in implementing it, or force others to implement it. Those people in charge are responsible for any change in the policy. Figure 1 How does the Policy view Culture? You can feel it within minutes of entering a school: the behavior of the students, the attitude of the teachers, the care for the physical plant, the artifacts of discovery, learning, curiosity, community, expression and intellection that adorn the walls of the place, it is obvious that this is a place where young people and teachers learn (Bill Schubart 2010). Good policy must include the characteristics of good and learning culture that is aware to students from diverse culture and give them equal chances of learning, and increase their sense of awareness towards each others. Good educational and learning culture is not driven by high property taxes, escalating school budgets, federal or state legislation, national testing, good buildings, nice classes or teachers unions. It is a modeled behavior set by leadership in the school, followed by a critical mass of the teaching body, all of whom are accountable for the culture and spread it by their own example and experience, their comm itment to a community of learning, removing cultural diversities and barriers between students, their respect for one another and for their students (Schubart, 2008). What is the teachers role in implementing and adopting the policy? The diversity in classrooms presents unique opportunities and significant challenges for teaching. Students in UAE schools are with a wide variety of skills, abilities, and interests and with varying potentials in various areas. The wider the variation of the student population in each classroom, the more complex the teachers role becomes in, teaching, organizing, motivating and controlling students to ensure that each student has access to high-quality learning . The ultimate goal of any teacher is to find suitable approach to every student in the classroom, and try to motivate him in a way to get the best from him. To reach that goal, teachers need assistance, training and well designed curriculum that must fit the needs of all students. Many schools have prepared their teachers to deal with diversity cases in their classrooms and leave it for the teacher to evaluate the situation and find the suitable solution to eliminate those diversities in order to get the best from students, and increase their sense of belonging. The policy at DIS doesnt mention any point related to the teacher role in the implementation of the policy, how it will be applied, what other parties to be involved (supervisors and parents), and the changes in curriculums to facilitate the implementation process. This implicit policy is considered too short to discuss every single aspect related to the problem and put pressure on teachers to figure out personal solutions to deal with diversities in their classrooms. Those solutions are not standard; they vary from teacher to teacher and from class to class. Good policy doesnt give margin for such variations; it must have clear values, well articulated, the action required from this policy must be stated, and the methods of implementation must has to included in the policy. Where are the errors of implementation? (Implementation Gap) The policies in general are clear, written in a good professional language, and they are considered part of schools mission. The problems are not in the policy or its values only, but in the implementation of those policies, and the lack of communication between various parts responsible for applying the policy. There could be implementation gap as a result of many factors, which could arise from the policy itself, the policy maker, or the environment in which the policy has been made. Implementation gap can arise from the policy itself when such a policy emanates from government rather than from the target groups. By this, it means that planning is top-down. And, by implication, the target beneficiaries are not allowed to contribute to the formulation of the policies that affect their lives, the target groups could be the teachers, students, and families (Makinde, 2005). Another cause of implementation gap is the failure of the policy makers to take into consideration the social, po litical, economic and administrative variables when analyzing for policy formulation, as I referred in the beginning of this paper there is gap between private and public schools polices concerning cultural policies, public schools that are only attained by nationals with unified curriculum all over the country, put less pressures on those schools to realize cultural diversities between their students. Conclusion Schools in UAE are considered melting pot of students from diverse cultural backgrounds that need a suitable polices to achieve equal educational opportunities that will help them to realize other cultures, and increase students openness to diverse cultures. Polices alone without the suitable instruments of implementation is considered useless, good implementation is considered key success for any policy that put policy in action. Considering targeted group in setting the policy and involving them will increase its credibility and make the implantation easier to a certain extent. The policies must be clear, written in a good professional language, and they are considered part of schools mission. The problems are not in the policy or its values only, but in the formulation and implementation of those policies, and the lack of communication between various parts responsible for implementing the policy.

Conflict in the Workplace Essay

Abstract Organizational conflict is a state of disagreement brought on by the real or saw resistance of requirements, values, and investment between individuals cooperating. Conflict takes numerous structures in association. There is the certain clash between formal authority and power and those people and gatherings influenced. There are disagreements regarding how incomes ought to be separated, how the work ought to be carried out and to what extent and hard individuals ought to work. For some individuals, clash is negative, troublesome, and unwanted, for example, a contention with one’s mate or with a companion. In any case, others discover conflict fun and stimulating; they revel in the energy and incitement that conflict can give. At the point when conflicts are left uncertain they have a tendency to have an antagonistic outcome for associations and the individuals working in them. It is vital to figure out how to resolve a conflict in a way that amplifies its potential profits an d minimizes its potential damage. In the ideal situation, appropriately determined conflict enhances benefit, work fulfillment, particular prosperity, and the clashing parties’ relationship. Defining Conflict The term conflict has no single, clear definition. Be that as it may, in the setting of association conduct, conflict may be characterized as a condition in which one gathering contrarily influences or looks to adversely influence an alternate gathering (Thomas, 1992). Conflict might be discernible or saw (Wall & Callister, 1995), which implies that somebody may accept a clash exists actually when it would be hard to bring up as a recognizable even. Conflict and arrangements are nearly related ideas, in that both recommend that two gatherings are included, and both try to force their will or pick  up in a questioned circumstance. Conflict can run from inviting rivalry to great roughness. Conflict has several starting points before it becomes an issue; it starts with conflict within the workplace, different levels of conflict, resolution for conflict, and the outcome from the resolution of conflict. Conflicts at Work When you work in an environment with numerous egos it is hard not to clash with each one in turn. Individuals who procure inner selves to perform an occupation title or who pick up a self image after advancements are tricky to work with and under. Individuals with inner selves likewise tend to control everything and everybody that works with and for them. When I worked for the State of Tennessee, the Assistant Commissioner over my specialty had an exceptionally extreme time working with individuals who had a supposition that clashed with hers. My executive at the time was attempting to change the arrangements inside the office to help it run all the more viably. They would meet on various events with case burdens and approach changes that she denied each time on the grounds that it didn’t fit into what she needed for her specialization. Seeing that she contracted him for that reason, to change arrangements, you would have suspected that she would regard his position and endorse each change; particularly on the off chance that it was a positive change for the division. As time went on, she quit corresponding with him and started to speak with the associate chief of our specialty. He started to understand of the circle of what was going on and felt like his position was not regarded by her or his different associates. In the end, he surrendered from his position and was offered a superior position with an alternate division. Levels of Conflict Not all conflicts are the same. Administrators ought to be mindful that four levels of clash happen in the working environment. Determining clash can’t happen until the level has been legitimately recognized. The four levels of conflict are as takes after: intrapersonal, or intrapsychic conflict, interpersonal conflict, intragroup conflict, and intergroup conflict. Intrapersonal conflicts happen inside a single person. Plans, musings, qualities, and feelings can clash with each other. Interpersonal conflicts happen between people. Commonly, two people in an organization enter into clashes. Identity conflicts regularly come about because of work environment incivility. Illustrations of incivility incorporate sexually unseemly remarks, racial or ethnic slurs, mocking of more seasoned/more youthful laborers, ridicule focused around sexual introduction, and obtuse remarks about physical or mental incapacity (Blau & Anderson, 2005). Intragorup conflict alludes to episodes between p arts of a gathering. Differences about objectives, strategies for operations, and authority make intragroup clashes. At the point when conflicts are not appropriately overseen and determined, the deciding results could be poor choices and inadequate gathering working (Bazerman & Neale, 1992). Intergroup conflict happens between different gatherings, for example, between divisions inside an organization, or between factions, for example, ethnic gatherings or female and male workers. Intergroup conflicts develop when contradictions about objectives, contrasts of conclusion about which gathering ought to be appointed an undertaking or errand, or plan portions turn into the center of consideration. The level of conflict that took place between the two parties was the interpersonal conflict. The wellspring of the conflicts in this circumstance was the absence of correspondence, authority, and techniques for operations inside our nature. A large portion of the conflict that emerged between my executive and the Assistant Commissioner was from contradictions about them not meeting division objectives in an auspicious way. Another conflict that the two shared amongst one another is the fact that one felt like they were more mentally capable than the other to finish the task. Being that both of these two individuals had solid assessments on how things ought to be carried out they were not able to complete the cycle with a sound answer for their issues. Resolution for the Conflict Conflict triggers solid feelings and can prompt, frustration, and uneasiness. At the point when taken care of in a bad way, it can result in hopeless fractures, feelings of hatred, and break-ups. However when conflict is determined in a solid manner, it builds our understanding of each other, forms trust, and fortifies our relationship bonds. At the same time when there is no positive determination made between two conflicting parties negative practices begin to emerge. Since there were no steps taken to resolve the issues that happened between the two parties, I would make proposals on what I felt would have worked in stopping the progressing conflict. Before offering a resolution for any conflict, I feel that it is important to understand the relationship before the conflict took place. After the identifying factors have been made, I would then suggest that they look beyond the incident and find the source of the conflict; which would be the egos more so than the people involved. After bringing the source of conflict to light, then it would be imperative to suggest solutions that would make both parties happy. In this particular scenario, I would suggest that both parties put their egos to the side and work on getting things done in a timely matter. I would also suggest that since she hired him to change policies for the department that she should allow him to do his job. After both parties agree to disagree, I would make sure that I implement positive rules for the future so that this scenario won’t affect them again in the long run. Three Outcomes from Conflict One of the most common outcomes of conflict is that it upsets parties in the short run. However, conflict can have both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side, conflict can result in greater creativity or better decision making. For example, as a result of a disagreement over a policy, a manger may learn from an employee that newer technologies help solve problems in an unanticipated new way. There are many positive things that come from conflict after a conflict has a resolution. In the conflict describe, the three outcomes that can come from the resolution I suggested are: consideration of a broader range of ideas, resulting in a better, stronger idea; increased participation and creativity, and clarification of both individuals views that build learning. A broader range of ideas can help cease conflict among both parties and future parities. When a superior considers other people and their ideas you get a better sense of what your employers needs are. It is very hard to work under a person who feels that he/she has a bigger need in the company/business than the others. This will not only fix many problems within the workplace but it will also increase the moral and productivity within the workplace. When your team has a supportive superior you will notice a difference in how they work and the way they work. Clarification is a very essential key in any work environment. Clarification and communication go hand in hand.  Clarification involves offering back to the speaker the essential meaning, as understood by the listener. Thereby checking that the listener’s understanding is correct and resolving any areas of confusion or misunderstanding. In Conclusion Everybody needs to feel comprehended, sustained and upheld; however the routes in which these needs are met shift generally. Contrasting requirements for feeling great and sage make probably the most serious difficulties in our particular and expert connections. The needs of both parties assume a critical part in the long haul achievement of most connections, and each one merits appreciation and thought. In work environment conflicts, contrasting needs are regularly at the heart of sharp debate, now and then bringing about broken arrangements, less benefits and lost employments. When you can perceive the authenticity of conflict needs and get eager to inspect them in an environment of caring comprehension, it open pathway to imaginative critical thinking, group fabricating, and enhanced connections. References Baac, D. (2012). Organizational behavior. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Bazerman, M. H., & Neale, M. A. (1992). Negotiating rationally. New York: Free Press. Blau, G., & Anderson, L. (2005). Testing a measure of instigated workplace incivility. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(4), 595–614. Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

The Current Hostilities Between Yemen And Saudi Arabia Today

What are the underlying factors, cultural differences, and outside intervention leading up to the current hostilities between Yemen and Saudi Arabia today? To answer some of these fundamental questions, I will use the relevant aspects of the five core ideas about the social conflict which are championed by Louis Kriesberg and Bruce Dayton’s book â€Å"Constructive Conflicts.† Kriesberg and Dayton posit that that social conflicts are universal, and can be beneficial; social conflicts are waged with varying destructiveness; social conflicts entail contested social constructions; social conflicts can be transformed, and that social conflicts are dynamic and tend to move through stages. In order for us to be able to understand the dispute, we must†¦show more content†¦The roots of the current conflict between Saudi Arabia and the Republic of Yemen stems from sectarian, social political, and ideological differences which are identified as contested social constructions in the core ideas. Moreover, these social constructions are moving in stages and are vital to the accurate assessment as to what has led to the original cause of the conflict. Ideological differences tainted with sectarianism seem to be one of the driving factors for conflict. The newly unified Republic of Yemen kept its Ba’athist loyalties, and it s somewhat tempered Marxist leanings in its governance. One of the presumed crucial trigger points for the ongoing conflict between Yemen and Saudi Arabia is the 1990 Gulf War. On August 2, 1990, the state of Iraq invaded the small state of Kuwait and claimed it as their 19th province. This is taken, and not without unfounded rationalization, as only a small stepping stone for Iraq to directly attack the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its expansive oil fields to the south. Saudi Arabia claimed that Iraq’s actions posed a serious threat to its national security and sovereignty and asked the international community for assistance. The international community quickly responded with an immediate session of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) and issued UNSC Resolution 660, which condemned the invasion and demanded theShow MoreRelatedThe Islamic Republic Of Iran2234 Words   |  9 Pagesthat Iran presents itself today. Their ideology, focus on Statism, subversion of individual rights and fighting proxy wars against our country did not prevent continued albeit at times strained dialogue between our nations. The United States has three viable options to approach Iran active engagement, attacking Iran or continued containment and isolation. If the U.S. led another military operation in the Middle East it would significantly damage relations with the current leadership of the MuslimRead MoreOsama Bin Laden: the Fall of a Tyrant9653 Words   |  39 PagesTurner Johnson, â€Å"Jihad and Just War,† First Things, June/July 2002, pp. 12-14. 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Australian s Constitution The Founding Political And...

Australian’s Constitution is the founding political and legal document of our nation. It underpins the system of government and the federal laws by which our country is run. The Constitution was written over a century ago and was shaped by the values and beliefs of the time, the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people were not recognised at all. In fact the only mention of the Indigenous people was to exclude them. Most Australian people in society today would be shocked to know that the Constitution actually allows discrimination against the Indigenous people. Since Indigenous people are still not recognised in the Constitution there is growing support for the Constitution to be amended in order to recognise the Indigenous people of†¦show more content†¦The section will also pay respect to culture, language and heritage, and state that the government can only make laws to the benefit of Aboriginal people. †¢ Change section 116 to specifically prohibit racial discrimination for all Australians. This will forbid any government from discriminating against a person based on race, colour, ethnicity or national origin. †¢ Amend section 127 for recognition of languages and to acknowledge and protect the role that languages have in Aboriginal communities (Australian Government, 2015. Constitutional reform: FAQs - Towards a successful referendum) There is no specific reference to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia s constitution. Advocates argue recognition of Indigenous Australians in the founding document is vital, both symbolically and practically. By amending the constitution the nation will advance further along the road to reconciliation, this act based on the respect for the dignity and humanity of the Indigenous people will form a crucial part in moving towards a reconciled Australia (Australian Government, 2015). In all of Australia’s history there has never been a moment in which our nation has formally recognised the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people as the first people of this country. During the referendums that may occur to alter the constitution the

A Summary of The Scarlet Letter - 771 Words

Hester Prynne was born in England. She met her husband, Roger Chillingworth in Amsterdam, Netherland and got married with him, although she didn’t love him. Chillingworth sent her to Boston to wait for his arrival, but she ended up by having a child with Authur Dimmesdale, who was a minister of the town. So she was sent to the prison as she had committed adultery. One day, she was emerged from the prison with the letter â€Å"A† on her breast, which is a sign of punishment for her adultery commitment. She and her three-month old daughter, Pearl were led to the scaffold of pillory. At there, she was asked to tell who Pearl’s father is, but she refused to tell. Although Dimmesdale, Pearl’s real father tried to convince her to tell everyone the truth, she still refused. On the scaffold, she noticed her real husband, Roger Chillingworth. She was shocked. When Hester returned to the prison, Chillingworth pretended to be a physician so that he was able to enter the prison. 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Literature Review Methane Free Essays

Methane Recovery from Landfills Utilization as a Potential Energy Source and Impact on Reduction of Green House Gasses According to The Conference Board of Canada, current Canadian municipal solid waste (MSW) generation levels are approximately 30 million tonnes per year, with a rate of 894 kg per capita, 67 percent of which is landfilled. (Jones L. et al. We will write a custom essay sample on Literature Review Methane or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2002) Sanitary landfills burry MSW under soil, sanctioning a complex series of reactions to occur, where anaerobic microorganisms decompose a portion of the organic fraction of the waste producing methane and carbon dioxide. Methane generation and emission from landfills are topics of major interest due to methane’s role in the greenhouse effect, migration of hazard potential, health and safety issues and energy applications. The objective of this literature review is to provide a concise relationship between MSW and landfill gasses (LFG), details of potential methods used for capturing methane as appose to emitting the gas as well as the benefits of doing. Rendering to information written by D. R. Reinhart and T. G. Townsend (1998), MSW contains approximately 50 – 70 % of biodegradable material, such as food, paper, wood, and garden trimmings. Once MSW is deposited into a landfill, it undergoes a number of biological, physical and chemical changes. These changes are greatly dependent on site conditions, waste characteristics, temperature, quantity of oxygen, moisture content and other factors. (Nozhevinikova et al. 1993) The most important reactions occurring within the landfill are those involving the microbes which begin to consume the carbon in the organic material, in turn causing the decomposition and eventually leading to the evaluate of LFG. In sanitary landfills, the process of burying waste and regularly covering deposits with a low permeability material creates an internal anaerobic environment that favors methane producing bacteria since the presence of oxygen is lacking. Pathways leading to the production of methane and carbon dioxide from anaerobic digestion of organic fraction of solid waste are briefly described bellow: 1) Decomposition of organic matter- In this preliminary process, compounds of higher molecular mass (Lipids, proteins, nucleic acids etc. are transformed into intermediate mass compounds making them much more suitable for the microorganisms as a source of energy and cell carbon 2) Conversion of decomposed matter to Organic Acid- In this phase, the existing microorganisms convert the intermediate molecular mass compounds into lower molecular mass compounds such as compel organic acids. 3) Conversion of Acetic Acid to Methane Gas- During this stage, the microorganisms transform the acetic acid into methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gasses. Cassia de Brito Galvao, T. and Pos, W. H. 2002) As the solid waste decomposes in landfills, the gas which is emitted is composed of approximately 50 percent CH4 and 50 percent CO2, both of which are green house gasses (GHG) (Bingemer, H G. , ; Crutzen, P. J. 1987) With Landfilling being the primary source of disposal of MSW around the world, (Encyclopedia Britanica 2012) methane emissions from landfill represent the largest source of GHG emissions from the waste sector, contributing around 700 Mt CO2-e. United Nations Environmental Programme 2012) As recorded by Environment Canada (2010), similar trends exist nationally with emissions from Canadian landfills accounting for 20% of the total national methane emissions. Information gathered in a thesis prepared by Palananthakumar, B. (1991) outlines the proportion of methane produced world wide from landfills, and can be seen illustrated graphically below in Figure 1. 0. Figure 1. 0: % of Methane Production Contributions Worldwide from Landfill Existing research leads to the confident statement that methane is a potent greenhouse gas. As summarized in a 2009 article from the Municipal Solid Waste, the Journal for Municipal Solid Waste Professionals, In its Fourth Assessment Report (2007), The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that, on a 100-year time frame, each molecule of methane has a global warming potential 25 times higher than that associated with a molecule of carbon dioxide. (Duffy, D. P. et al 2009) Table 1. 0 summarizes the enumerated global warming potential for the primary greenhouse gasses discussed. Table 1. : Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a Given Time Horizon Greenhouse Gas| GWP20-yr (kg CO2-e| GWP (IPCC 2007) 100-yr (kg CO2-e)| GWP 500-yr (kg CO2-e)| Carbon Dioxide (CO2)| 1| 1| 1| Methane (CH4)| 72| 25| 7. 6| (Forster, P. et al 2007) In the last decade, attention to methane emissions from landfills has grown significantly with increased and ongoing awareness of global warming. The efforts of individual landfills as well as the nations as a whole are closely monitored f or the control of methane emissions. A trend has been observed that the magnitude of methane emission has been slightly decreasing, which is potentially due to the development of LFG to energy projects. Contrary to the negative perception associated with all greenhouse gasses, capturing this LFG can lead to beneficial outcomes. Generally, recovered methane either flares or is used as source of energy. The use of the gas as a source of energy is economical and environmentally friendly method to reduce LFG emissions. There are three primary approaches for the utilization of LFG. They include; 1) Direct use of gas locally 2) Generation of electricity and distribution through power grid 3) Processing and injection into a gas pipeline. (Palananthakumar, B. 1991) The captured LFG has the potential to provide a continuous source of energy and improve local air quality. In addition, using LFG can significantly reduce GHG emission, making the option of exploiting this alternative energy source a very viable option to MSW management. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has utilized this MSW management option and continues to encourage it. They have created a program that aims to help reduce methane emissions from landfills by assisting and encouraging the recovery and use of LFG as an energy resource. Since the programs inception, Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) has assisted 520 LFG energy projects in the United States reduce landfill CH4 emissions and avoid CO2 emissions by a combined 44 million metric tons of carbon equivalent. The reduction of methane emission through this program has slightly influenced the overall emission of LFG in USA. The success of LMOP can be reckoned by observing statistics from 2010 where reductions from all operational LFG energy projects were equivalent to Annual GHG emissions from 18. 5 million passenger vehicles. (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2012) A variety of technologies exist to generate electricity from collected methane including, internal combustion engines, gas turbines, and microturbines. Although there is a diversity of technologies, approximately eighty five percent of existing LFG electricity generation projects use internal combustion engines or turbines. United States Environmental Protection Agency 2012) â€Å"How much energy can Municipal solid waste produce? † is a common question among existing research. According to â€Å"An Overview of Landfill Gas Energy in the United States† published by U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Landfill Methane Outreach Program, one million tons of landfilled MSW can produce an electricity generation capaci ty of approximately 0. 8 MW. To further quantify this value, allowing the magnitude of the electricity generation to be understood, Focus on Energy (2003) outlines that 0. 8MW would be drawn to power approximately 8 000 100w light bulbs. It can be concluded that LFG recovery wreaks benefits environmentally, socially and economically. LFG recovery, particularly methane, also makes an impact on the larger issue termed green house effect, as it is amongst the most cost effective and feasible measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The recovered LFG can be directly or indirectly utilized to produce energy, which is a perpetually small, however; a very important component of an integrated approach to the solid waste management given that the use of landfills continues to remain the predominant method of municipal solid waste disposal in most countries. Global Methane 2012) References Bingemer, H G. , ; Crutzen, P. J. (1987). The Production of Methane from Solid Wastes. † Journal of Geophysical Research, 90(D2), 2181–2187. Cassia de Brito Galvao, T. and Pos, W. H. (2002) â€Å"Landfill Biogas Management: Case of Chilean Sanitary Landfills. † Recovering Energy from Waste, 183-194. Conference Board o f Canada. (2011). â€Å"Municipal Waste Generation. † How Canada Performs, ; http://www. conferenceboard. ca/hcp/details/environment/municipal- waste-generation. aspx#_ftnref3; (Sept. 28th, 2012) Duffy, D.. P et al (2009). â€Å"Moving Up†¦ to the Top of the Landfill. Municipal Solid Waste Management. 19(2), 36-39. Encyclopedia Britanica (2012). â€Å"Solid Waste Management. † ;http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/553362/solid-wastemanagement /72390/Sanitary-landfill; (Sept. 29th, 2012) Environment Canada (2010). â€Å"Municipal Solid Waste and Greenhouse Gases. † ;http://www. ec. gc. ca/gdd-mw/default. asp? lang=En;n=6F92E701-1; (Sept 29th, 2012) Focus On Energy (2003). â€Å"Electricity Basics for Renewable Energy Systems†, Focus on Energy, Wisconsin. Forster, P. et al (2007) â€Å"Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United King dom and New York, NY, USA. Global Methane (2012). â€Å"Basic Concepts of Integrated Solid Waste Management. † International Best Practices Guide for LFGE Projects, Global Methane Initiative, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Jones, L. et al. (2002). â€Å"Environmental Indicators 5th Edition. † Critical Issues Bulletin, The Fraser Institute: Vancouver, BC Landfill Methane Outreach Program (2012). â€Å"An Overview of Landfill Gas Energy in the United States† U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Nozhevinikova, A. N. , et al. (1993). â€Å"Microbiological Process in Landfills. † Water Science Technology, 27(2), 243-252. Reinhart, D. R. , and Townsend, T. G. (1998). Landfill Bioreactor Design ; Operation, CRC Press LLC: Boca Raton, FL, USA. Palananthakumar, B. (1991). â€Å"Modeling of Methane Generation, Oxidation and Emission in Landfills. † M. Eng. Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology School of Environment, Resources and Development, Bangkok, Thailand. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012). â€Å"Landfill Gas Energy:A Guide to Developing and Implementing Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs. Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Guides, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2011). â€Å"Landfill Methane Outreach Program. † Environmental Protection Agency, ;http://www. epa. gov/lmop/ faq/ lmop. html; (Sept 29th, 2012) United Nations Environmental Programme (2012) â€Å" Waste and Climate Change: Global Trends and Strategy Framework. † United Nations Environmental Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics International Environmental Technology Centre, Osaka, Japan. How to cite Literature Review Methane, Essays

Main Ratings Bureaux for Standard and Poors - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theMain Ratings Bureauxfor Standard and Poors. Answer: The paper examines the main ratings bureaux including Moodys, Standard and Poors, Fitch and A.M. Best for insurance alongside additional quite small rating agencies. The Big Three credit ratings agencies include Standard Poors (SP), Fitch Group and Moodys. The Moodys and SP are United States based whereas the Fitch has two headquarters in London and New York City. It is under the control of Dearst. These agencies held a shared global market share of about ninety-five percent with SP and Moodys having approximately forty percent individually while Fitch has about fifteen percent. The three agencies have special status arising from cementation by law initially solely in the US. However, this cementation by law was later adopted in Europe. From the middle of the 1990s till early 2003, they were solely Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organizations (NRSROs) in the US. Such a designation meant the three agencies were utilized by the United States government in various regulatory areas. Additional four NRSROs and Fitch in the year 1990s (Duan Van Laere, 2012). These agencies have remained under extensive scrutiny following the 2007-2009 global financial crisis arising from their preferable pre-crisis ratings of the bankrupt financial institution including Lehman Brothers, alongside risk mortgage-linked securities which accounted for the collapse of the United States housing market. They became key enablers of the meltdown of the financial in the wake of the financial crisis (Elkhoury, 2009). The mortgage-associated securities at the core of the crisis were unable to be marketed and subsequently sold in the absence of approval of their seal. The investors had rely on these agents. Besides the Big Three agencies, there are A.M. Best and Weiss Ratings. Each rating agency has it individual rating standards, scale and vary in the firms they rate but with the substantial overlap. All of the mentioned rating agencies utilize the public info, like SEC filings, besides the main accounting reports, encompassing the cash flow, balance sheet as well as income statement. The balance is useful in rating as it indicates how much assets surpass liabilities. All of these ratings agencies with an exception of Weiss acquire extra information from the executive management alongside owners via interviews as well as questionnaires. The A.M. Best focuses mainly in credit ratings for the insurance firms and it has the widest coverage of the insurance firms, whereas the other remaining rating agencies further cover several kinds of firms as well as debt securities (Flynn Ghent, 2017). The other feature that distinguish Weiss from the remaining rating agencies is that they undertake paid ratings by the end-users, while the remaining rating agencies receive their respective payment from the firms that they rate. This establishes the potential conflict of interests since the companies shall generally pursue those rating agencies which shall provide them with the best ratings. Subsequently, the rating agencies might be increasingly inclined to provide higher ratings than would be acceptable by the financial status of the firms. Such a conflict of interest remains what partially triggered the credit crisis of the 2007-2009 since certain rating agencies like Moodys alongside Standard and Poors, were providing investment-grade ratings to financial securities anchored on the debt like mortgage-backed securities as well as collateralized debt obligations, thus, remained anchored on subprime mortgages (Rona-Tas, 2017). Apart from such conflict, nevertheless, information from management via interviews as well as questionnaires can generate substantially greater insight into the financial viability of the firms as well as its future. The accuracy of diverse IFS ratings from diverse CRAs can as well as be measured via the analysis of the statistics of the default alongside impairment rates for individual rating classification or category: The A.M. Best created in the year 1900, rates the most of insurers. It further has a not rated designation for such companies which are not covered. The IFS ratings from the diverse firms might vary in their designation of the quality of the credit. For example, an A-from A.M. Best remains the most comparable to the BBB from the Fitch, the Moodys as well as the Standard Poors. The Weiss ratings mostly rely on the public financial statement; firm executives are never interviewed nor are not publicly available documents utilized, unless they remain willingly provided by the firm (White, 2010).). Every rating scale utilizes uppercase letters for the main categories of the financial stability. Here A is the best or the foremost financially stable. Minor distinctions within individual major category is designated with the lower case letters, or the plusses as well as minuses. It is also noted that rating designations might designate diverse levels of the financial stability among diverse agencies. For example, A+ designates the penultimate top rating from the AM Best from its fifteen categories, while that same designation remains the fifth highest ratings out of the twenty categories for the Fitch as well as the nineteen categories for the SP (Eijffinger, 2012). The primary information for the ratings arise from quarterly as well as annual financial statements that insurers have to file with their state regulator, complemented with the publicly reachable documents like SEC filings, business plans as well as the AM Best questionnaires. The info is further collected from the interviews with the executive of the insurance firms. The financial strength ratings range from A++, superior, to F, in liquidation (De Haan Amtenbrink, 2011). Not all the insurance firms shall provide rating info to the rating firms, whereby, A.M. Best and SP will depend on the public info, but the shall designate the rating which is anchored on the public info solely. The A.M. Best suffixes (pd) to the rating, that it will call Public Data Rating, whereas SP shall suffix pi to its rated designation, that it will tag A Qualified Solvency Rating. In conclusion, the paper has focused on the rating agencies including their rating scales and standard to enhance the understanding of these agencies (Bolton, Freixas Shapiro, 2012). References Bolton, P., Freixas, X., Shapiro, J. (2012). The credit ratings game. The Journal of Finance, 67(1), 85-111. De Haan, J., Amtenbrink, F. (2011). Credit rating agencies. Duan, J. C., Van Laere, E. (2012). A public good approach to credit ratingsFrom concept to reality. Journal of Banking Finance, 36(12), 3239-3247. Eijffinger, S. C. (2012). Rating agencies: role and influence of their sovereign credit risk assessment in the Eurozone. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 50(6), 912-921. Elkhoury, M. (2009). Credit rating agencies and their potential impact on developing countries. UNCTD Compendium on Debt Sustainability, 165-180. Flynn, S., Ghent, A. (2017). Competition and credit ratings after the fall. Management Science. Rona-Tas, A. (2017). The Off-Label Use of Consumer Credit Ratings. Historical Social Research, 42(1), 52-76. White, L. J. (2010). Markets: The credit rating agencies. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 211-226.